In the second century AD Greek mathematician, astronomer and geographer Claudius Ptolemy presented his theory of a world in which the Indian Ocean was surrounded by land. The ocean’s lower shores lapped against an unknown land, a Terra incognita. Ptolemy’s theories, which appeared in his Geographia, were revived around 1400 when his manuscript was rediscovered and distributed across Europe through new translations in manuscript and printed versions. There are no surviving copies of any map produced by Ptolemy — assuming one existed — but he did produce a detailed description of the geography of the world with 8000 places listed according to their coordinates. This description was the basis for maps created in the 15th century, which were expanded in the 16th century to include new discoveries. Francesco Berlinghieri published a new edition of Geographia in 1482. Berlinghieri translated Ptolemy’s original text into the vernacular Italian and then turned it into verse. He included modern maps of Italy, France and Spain

Digital order no: a5284001

In the medieval world, Ptolemy’s theories on geography were set aside for more faith-based models. In the T–O model, a circle represents the known universe and a ‘T' separates the world into the three known continents. Or, in biblical terms, the world is divided between the three sons of Noah: Shem, Ham and Japheth. A simple version of a T–O map is contained in Etymologiae, written by St Isidore (c. 560–636 CE). St Isidore was Bishop of Seville. Etymologiae, his most famous work, was an encyclopaedia of western European knowledge, including information on law, grammar, history, mathematics, astronomy, ecclesiastical practices, architecture and agriculture. The Library’s copy, printed in 1489, contains a number of hand-coloured initials in red and blue.

Digital order no: a5081001

The Ancient Greeks conceived the idea of a southern landmass to counterbalance the land in the north. Aristotle named this imagined southern land ‘Antarktikos', as the northern lands lay under the constellation of 'Arktos' (the bear). The ‘climatic’ or ‘zonal’ map, which divided the world into five climate zones, was also developed in this classical period. In these simple maps the world was divided into five equal parts. Cold zones in the north and the south were separated by temperate zones and an equatorial zone so hot that it was impassable. The earliest example of a zonal map in the Library’s collection is by Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius, a fifth-century Roman philosopher. In this Macrobius map, published in 1492, Europe, Africa and Asia are shown in the upper hemisphere. A vast southern continent lies in the lower hemisphere. An ocean called Alveus separates the continents.

Digital order no: a127003

Liber Chronicarum, known popularly as the Nuremberg Chronicle, was published by Hartmann Schedel in 1493. The Nuremberg Chronicle, the most famous illustrated book of the period, provided a chronology of the world from creation. This map was used to illustrate the world after the deluge and depicts Noah’s three sons — Shem, Japheth, and Ham — claiming their inheritance. Although recent discoveries would have been known, the map does not include the discovery by Bartholomew Diaz of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 or Columbus’ discovery of the American continent in 1492.

Digital order no: a655005

In 1548 Gemma Frisius (1508–1555), a Dutch physician, instrument maker and mathematician, produced a new edition of Cosmographia, originally published by Peter Apianus in 1524. Cosmographia provides a layman's introduction to subjects such as astronomy, geography, cartography, surveying, navigation and mathematical instruments. The volume also includes a number of volvelles, or movable paper instruments, which enabled readers to solve calendar problems and find the positions of the sun, moon and the planets.

Digital order no: a127013

In 1531, French mathematician and cartographer Oronce Fine produced a world map which depicted a huge southern continent extending from the south polar region. According to Fine, this Terra Australis was ‘recently discovered but not yet fully known’. In this woodcut the vast southern continent stretches up to include Tierra del Fuego, sighted by Magellan in 1520. The size of the southern landmass roughly equals that of the land north of the equator, supporting the theory of a balance between the hemispheres.

Digital order no: a127007

In 1548 Gemma Frisius (1508–1555), a Dutch physician, instrument maker and mathematician, produced a new edition of Cosmographia, originally published by Peter Apianus in 1524. This cordiform world map by Gemma Frisius was published around 1544 and included in the later editions of Cosmographia. The map includes one of the earliest images of North America. The heart-shaped border contains signs of the zodiac and, at the base of the map, the cadaverous windheads contrast sharply with the more traditional plump-cheeked cherubs. These windheads represent the plague-carrying winds from the south

Digital order no: a5089001

This world map by Antonio Floriano is based on a world map by Mercator produced in 1538. An image of Ptolemy has been placed in the top left hand corner and Floriano has included his own profile in the top right hand corner.Each hemisphere is divided into 36 cores and would create a globe of 25,7 cm. diameter. Floriano’s copperplate version is unfinished, with the title panels and cartouches left blank.

Digital order no: a127008

This world map was published in 1570 in Abraham Ortelius’ Theatrum Orbis Terranum, the first modern atlas. The map shows a vast southern polar continent, Terra Australis Nondum Cognita, based on the reports of Magellan’s sighting of Tierra del Fuego when he rounded the tip of South America. The first edition of Ortelius' Theatrum Orbis Terrarum was published in Latin in 1570. It was subsequently issued in 33 editions over the next 41 years and translated into six other languages: German, Dutch, French, Spanish, Italian and English

Digital order no: a127011

The map of the world was published in the Polyglot bible published by Montano between 1569 and 1572. The map shows how the descendants of Noah repopulated the Earth following the Great Flood. The text panels, in Latin and Hebrew, reproduce the Table of Nations which lists the descendants of Noah starting with his three sons, Japheth, Ham and Shem and the countries that they and their descendants founded.

Digital order no: a127016

The Ortelius map of America is one of the most recognised and influential maps from the 16th century. This map of the western hemisphere first appeared in the 1570 edition of Ortelius' Theatrum Orbis Terrarum.

Digital order no: a3304001

Gerard Mercator's world map of 1569 was condensed into a double hemisphere map by his son Rumold. It first appeared in 1587 and was incorporated into his influential Atlas from 1595. The large southern landmass, Terra Australis, stretches across the base of each hemisphere. Between the two hemispheres is an armillary sphere and an elaborate compass rose.

Digital order no: a127010

This unusual map by Cornelius de Jode appeared in the 1593 edition, Specumum Orbis Terrae. This Atlas was initiated by his father, Gerard, as a rival publication to the Ortelius Atlas. The southern hemisphere contains a large landmass, Ter. Australis incognita, which has a number of curious geographic features including a Golfo de S. Sebastian

Digital order no: a5084002

Cornelius Wytfliet was a Flemish cartographer. This map is divided into two sections. The upper section shows Patagonia. The lower and larger section shows a large continent, Australis Terre Pars.

Digital order no: a127025

In 1594 Dutch cartographer Petrus Plancius published a map of the world which would remain influential over the next 100 years. This double-hemisphere map was incredibly accurate, documenting recent discoveries around South-East Asia and the Arctic. A southern continent named Magallanica stretches across the base of the Plancius map from Polus Antarctica to New Guinea.

Digital order no: a127024